Garcia, Gilbert C., Ed. (2003). English Learners: Reaching the Highest Level of English Literacy. This collection of papers examines the critical literacy development of English learners, focusing on English reading instruction in an immersion setting, English language development, and cultural issues pertaining to English learners in and out of the classroom. The 16 papers include the following: (1) \Reading and the Bilingual Student: Fact and Friction\ (Jim Cummins); (2) \Teaching English Learners to Read: Learning or Acquisition?\ (David Freeman and Yvonne Freeman); (3) \Three Roles for Reading for Minority-Language Children\ (Stephen Krashen); (4) \Orthographic Development and Learning to Read in Different Languages\ (Donald R. Bear, Shane Templeton, Lori A. Helman, and Tamara Baren); (5) \Scaffolding Reading Experiences for Multilingual Classrooms\ (Michael F. Graves and Jill Fitzgerald); (6) \Making Content Instruction Accessible for English Language Learners\ (Ana Hernandez); (7) \Communicative Approaches to Second-Language Acquisition: The Bridge to Second-Language…

de Acosta, Martha; Volk, Dinah (2000). Sibling Support for Bilingual Kindergartners' Developing Literacy. This article examines the literacy events of two Puerto Rican kindergartners and their interactions with siblings and cousins of similar age. This work is part of a broader study that analyzes and describes literacy events in bilingual classrooms, homes, and churches of Spanish-dominant Puerto Rican beginning readers. Using a qualitative approach, the study examined the children's interactions with print and with other people (teachers, pastors, parents, peers, siblings, extended family members). These events are analyzed for similarities and differences in the three settings. The main questions guiding this research are the following: Who are the teachers in the children's homes, churches, and classrooms? What do they believe about literacy and their role in the process? What literacy events do children participate in and what are the literacy practices of these events? What strategies for teaching and learning are co-constructed by the children and their teachers? In this study… [PDF]

Clankie, Shawn M. (2000). On the Directionality and Maintenance of Language Policy in Revitalization Efforts. This paper examines efforts to save rapidly declining indigenous languages around the world. The entire process of language preservation and revitalization is a massive undertaking that requires immense long-term planning and support. These problems extend well beyond the linguistic concerns of the language itself. Language policy is inherently political in nature, pitting different linguistic (but also ethnic, religious, or cultural) groups against one another, any or all of whom may have reason to try to undermine any policy. This paper centers on these two distinct yet inter-related concerns in language revitalization efforts: directionality and policy preservation. The problem of directionality of language policy, the direction from which policy is generated and implemented, namely, top-down (government-imposed) or bottom-up (grassroots public-imposed) is unavoidable. It is argued that neither approach can be entirely successful without the other and that the present societal… [PDF]

(2001). Teaching English Language Arts to Francophone Students, Grades 3 to 9: A Guide to Transfers and Interference. This guide provides an extensive but not conclusive list of points of transfer and interference between the French and English languages. It is designed to help English language arts teachers of Francophone students understand that French language skills can be usefully transferred to English. Apart from a brief introduction, this document consists of a chart, providing a fairly detailed list of points of interference and transfer between French and English and appendices on strategies. The first column of this chart identifies the language concept that may result in interference. The second column presents three types of information: the problem, which offers an explanation of what the student is doing incorrectly; the source, which offers an explanation of how the students' knowledge of French causes this error; and the strategy, which suggests how to correct the problem. The chart has sections on consonants, vowels, controlled vowels, diphthongs, long-vowel letter combinations,… [PDF]

Hodgkinson, Harold (1999). State Differences: The Key to Demographics. School Business Affairs, v65 n5 p32-36 May. This companion piece to a 1997 article examines United States demographic trends, such as diversity by age, "race" and U.S. Census racial classifications, wealth, transiency, suburbanization and sprawl, and immigration, focusing on differences among states and metro regions. Nothing, including achievement scores, social services, and financial resources, is evenly distributed. (MLH)…

(1977). The New York State Education Department Annual Report, 1976-77. Inside Education, v64 n3 p1-27 Nov 77. Educational priorities in New York State are described in this report. Legislation affecting education is summarized. A statistical profile of enrollments and expenditures is given. Aspects of elementary, secondary, and continuing education are discussed. The discussion of higher and professional education includes a progress report on the statewide plan; regionalism; improving institutional management; State aid to nonpublic colleges; medical and dental education; improving doctoral education; external degrees and college proficiency; higher education opportunity programs (HEOP); noncollegiate sponsored instruction; protecting the consumer in the professions; financial assistance to students; self assessment for colleges and universities; and teacher education and certification. The section on cultural education covers the State Museum, mass communications; the State Library, the State Archives; and the State Science Service. Vocational rehabilitation is discussed briefly….

McGrath, Mimi; Pekelo-Bielen, Rhonda (1983). You Can Do It! Vocational Education. Volume 2: Choosing Strategies that Are Right for You. This volume, the second in a two-volume guide designed to provide vocational educators in Massachusetts with some practical tools for planning and implementing student recruitment strategies in their local areas, offers step-by-step instructions for implementing specific recruitment strategies. The first chapter examines the benefits of holding conferences and workshops to familiarize the community with current needs in vocational education and also includes detailed guidelines for improving public speaking skills and planning presentations. Provided in the second section are model presentations, magazine articles, and awareness exercises used by vocational schools and designed for widespread use among schools throughout the country. The third chapter, consisting of guidelines to help vocational instructors plan creative mass media and publicity campaigns, includes lists of Massachusetts-based media organizations and minority language newspapers that are published in the state….

Banathy, Bela H.; Studebaker, Diana P. (1977). The Native American Career Education Project. A Final Report. A project was conducted during 1974-76 to help meet the career awareness, orientation, and exploration needs of Native American youth in grades 7, 8, and 9. Activities included gathering information on Native American career education needs and surveying existing career education materials. Based on that information, twelve instructional units were designed and developed. Pilot testing took place in urban, semi-rural, and rural settings in California, Nevada, Arizona, and South Dakota; a third-party evaluation was conducted. Findings and recommendations include the following: (1) Native American tribes, parents, and students concerned perceive a need for career education; (2) materials written for Indian junior high school students should allow for poor language skills and should be relevant to students' cultural background; (3) the program tends to improve student ability in working with groups; (4) involvement in the program can give students an appreciation of their own culture,… [PDF]

Christian, Cinda; De La Ronde, Chris (2006). State Compensatory Education, 2004-2005. Publication Number 04.13. Online Submission State Compensatory Education (SCE) is a supplemental program in Texas designed to eliminate disparities in (a) student performance on assessment instruments administered under chapter 39 of the Texas Education Code (1995), and (b) the rates of high school completion between students who are at risk of dropping out of school, as defined by Texas Education Code 29.081 (1995), and all other students. This report examines the results for the State Compensatory Education program for at-risk students in AISD for the 2004-2005 school year…. [PDF]

(1990). Higher Achievement and Improvement Through Instruction with Computers and Scholarly Transition and Resource Systems Program (Project HAITI STARS), 1989-90. Final Evaluation Report. A final evaluation was conducted in the 1989-90 school year of New York City (New York) Board of Education's project, Higher Achievement and Improvement Through Instruction with Computers and Scholarly Transition and Resource Systems (HAITI STARS). The project served 524 limited-English-proficient Spanish-speaking students at Far Rockaway High School in Queens, Haitian Creole-speaking students at Andrew Jackson High School in Queens, and Chinese-speaking students at Sheepshead Bay High School in Brooklyn. Participating students received instruction in English as a Second Language (ESL), native language arts (NLA), and content area subjects presented bilingually or with ESL methodology and computer science. HAITI STARS also provided curriculum development and activities for parental involvement. The results of the evaluation indicate that the project was fully implemented. The students did receive instruction in ESL, NLA, content area subjects, computer education, and career… [PDF]

Livesey, Paul, Ed.; Verma, Mahenra K., Ed. (1989). York Papers in Lingustics 13. Selected Papers from the Sociolinguistics Symposium (7th, York, England, April 14-16, 1988). Special Number. The 25 selected papers contained in this volume reflect the current diversity of interests and research methods within the field of sociolinguistics. Titles include: "What is a Language?"; "The Unreality of Quantitative Figures"; "Addressee-Oriented Features in Spoken Discourse"; "Women's Speech, Women's Strength?"; "Age Identity and Elderly Disclosure of Chronological Age"; "Pragmatic Constraints on Interrogatives in Spoken French"; "Twixt the Scylla of Total Assimilation and the Charybdis of Suicidal Purism"; "Dialect Transmission and Variation: An Acoustic Analysis of Vowels in Six Urban Detroit Families"; "Language Variation Theory in the Light of Co-Occurrence Restriction Rules"; "Realtime vs. Apparent time Change in Montreal French"; "Speech Disorder as a Sociolinguistic Problem"; "A Rebuttal of Essentialist Sociolinguistics"; "The Evaluation of…

Martinez, Ana L.; And Others (1988). Project GET SET, 1986-1987. OEA Evaluation Report. In its first extension year following a 3-year funding cycle, Project GET SET served 108 Bronx junior high school students with limited ability in both English and Spanish, in two schools located in economically depressed, predominantly Hispanic neighborhoods. The project's major goals were to develop both English and Spanish language skills and provide counseling services and career information. Analysis of student achievement data and an examination of project records indicate that: (1) the English language development objective could not be assessed as proposed because of reporting problems; (2) the native language arts objective was surpassed; (3) the career awareness objective was surpassed; (4) the two parental involvement objectives, a proposed number of parent contacts, and a proposed number of workshops, were met; (5) attendance rates surpassed schoolwide rates at both sites, surpassing the objective; and (6) the proposed objectives for providing counseling and tutoring… [PDF]

Martinez, Ana L.; And Others (1988). William H. Taft High School Project HOLA, 1986-1987. OEA Evaluation Report. In its fourth year of Title VII funding, Project HOLA at William H. Taft High School served 383 Spanish-speaking students of limited English proficiency from low-income families. The program's goals were to develop English language skills for mainstreaming, to develop an understanding and awareness of American culture and society, to develop knowledge of the job market and an awareness of career interests, to improve Spanish language skills and cultural knowledge, and to make academic progress through content-area courses. Instruction in English as a second language (ESL), and in Spanish language and culture, and bilingually-taught classes in math, science, and social studies were provided. A number of extracurricular activities were also made available, including an organization for bilingual students with good grades and good attendance records. Staff reduction due to funding cutbacks occurred during the year. Program objectives were met in ESL, problem-solving and study skills… [PDF]

PAST, RAY; And Others (1966). BILINGUALISM–FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF RECRUITMENT AND PREPARATION OF BILINGUAL TEACHERS. THE TEACHERS OF BILINGUAL STUDENTS IN NEW MEXICO NEED ADDITIONAL TRAINING TO WORK WITH THOSE STUDENTS FROM THE LINGUISTICALLY AND CULTURALLY IMPOVERISHED AREAS OF THE STATE. THOSE TEACHERS OF ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE MUST BE PREPARED TO COMMUNICATE INTERCULTURALLY AS WELL AS LINGUISTICALLY IF THEY ARE TO PENETRATE THE REAL WORLD OF THE MEXICAN AMERICAN. FOR THE TEACHERS TO ACQUIRE ADEQUATE SKILLS OF UNDERSTANDING, READING, WRITING, AND SPEAKING, IT WILL BE NECESSARY FOR THEM TO UNDERSTAND–(1) THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE, (2) THE NATURE AND KINDS OF INTERFERENCE FROM ONE LANGUAGE TO ANOTHER, (3) THOUGHT PROCESSES AND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, (4) LANGUAGE AND ITS RELATION TO CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT, (5) PHONOLOGY, MORPHOLOGY, AND SYNTAX, (6) METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION, AND (7) MATERIALS FOR LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION. TEACHERS WHO ARE ALREADY EFFECTIVE DO ADAPT AND BECOME COMPETENT SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHERS. IT IS FELT, HOWEVER, THAT THE UNIVERSITIES COULD BE OF GREATER SERVICE… [PDF]

Katzenmeyer, W.G.; Stenner, A. Jackson Structural Integrity in Measures of Self Concept. Structural integrity of a measure is defined in terms of its replicability, constancy, invariance, and stability. Work completed in the development and validation of the Self Observation Scales (SOS) Primary Level (Stenner and Katzenmeyer, 1973) serves to illustrate one method of establishing structural integrity. The name of each scale of the SOS is a construct: an abbreviated thesis about the nature of the underlying variable which determines the configuration of indicants (questions) comprising the scale. SOS constructs (self acceptance, social maturity, school affiliation, and self security) are analyzed for different student groups. Traditional psychometrics assumes that the same questions measure the same underlying variables in all respondents; the validity of interperson and intergroup comparisons rests on this assumption. However, ample evidence suggests that this assumption is frequently in error. Procedures outlined in this paper provide a method for assessing the… [PDF]

Dornbusch, Sanford M.; Stanton-Salazar, Ricardo D. (1995). Social Capital and the Reproduction of Inequality: Information Networks among Mexican-Origin High School Students. Sociology of Education, v68 n2 p116-35 Apr. Reports on a study of social relationships, parental characteristics, academic achievement, and occupational expectations among 205 secondary-level Mexican-American high school students in California. Suggests that bilingualism may provide special advantages in obtaining the institutional support necessary for school success and social mobility. (CFR)…

Klinger, Carrie; Rivera, Natasha F. (1993). Helpful Opportunities for Pupil Enrichment (Project HOPE). Final Evaluation Report 1992-93. OER Report. This report provides evaluative information concerning Project HOPE (Helpful Opportunities for Public Enrichment) in New York City. This project served 250 Spanish-speaking students and 109 Chinese-speaking students who scored at or below the 40th percentile on the Language Assessment Battery and were thus categorized as being of limited English proficiency. It provided students with instruction in English as a second language (ESL), native language arts (NLA), and the content areas. The project also offered career counseling. The project provided development opportunities to teachers of participating students as well as to some mainstream teachers. Teachers of project students team-taught with the project's resource specialists, who acted as facilitators for the project. Parents of participating students had the opportunity to participate in field trips and other activities, including workshops. Data show that the project met its objectives for ESL, Chinese NLA, mathematics,… [PDF]

(1993). Learning English through Automotive Electronics (Project LETAE), Final Evaluation Report, 1992-93. OREA Report. Learning Through Automotive Electronics (Project LETAE) was a federally funded program serving 77 limited-English-proficient (LEP) students and 5 English-proficient students in an automotive computer electronics course in 1992-93, its third year of operation. The program provided instruction in English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL), native language arts (NLA), automotive electronics, mathematics, science, social studies, and music. A broad range of staff and curriculum development activities were also included. The project met its objectives for student attitudes toward school, cultural awareness, support services, dropout prevention, and curriculum development. It did not meet its objectives in NLA, attendance, or staff awareness. Attainment of the objective for ESL could not be measured. Two major recommendations for program improvement include: use of the specified ESL test or revision of the ESL objective; and improved parental involvement, perhaps beginning with a needs assessment… [PDF]

Hartley, Elizabeth A. (1987). How Can We Meet All Their Needs? Incorporating Education for the Gifted and Talented into the Multilingual Classroom. This discussion of identification and instructional needs of minority gifted or talented (G/T) children in the multiethnic classroom looks at a variety of issues, including teacher expectations, native or dominant language and its effect on the results of assessment, acculturation and attitudes toward mainstream society, and learning styles. Eight instructional strategies that can be incorporated into the multiethnic classroom by the classroom teacher are described and their advantages are outlined. These strategies consist of: (1) resource/action learning centers; (2) mentorships (tutorial); (3) independent study; (4) special advanced courses; (5) internships; (6) cluster or task grouping; (7) content acceleration; and (8) grade level acceleration. A brief bibliography is included. (MSE)…

(1982). Parent to Parent: Insider's Guide for High School Parents = De Padre a Padre: Guia para Padres con Alumnos en la Escuela Superior. This Spanish/English guide was written by parents for high school parents. The guide's first section deals with how to select the right high school. This is followed by a lengthy section on the high school years, which covers the following topics: how to keep up with what the student is doing; how to connect with the school; requirements for graduation; programs; transcripts; records; students' rights and responsibilities; suspension; attendance; health requirements and entrance screening; sickness or injury at school; holidays, half-days, vacations, and snow days; transportation; lunch and breakfast programs; clothing and supplies; working papers; voter registration; programs and services for handicapped students; bilingual programs; special programs; what to do if the student wants to change schools; and dropping out. The final section is about making decisions about employment or college after high school graduation. (CMG)…

Berney, Tomi D.; Carey, Cecilia (1989). Computer-Assisted Bilingual/Bicultural Multiskills Project, 1987-1988. OREA Report. The Computer-Assisted Bilingual/Bicultural Multiskills Project completed its first year of an extension grant. The program used computerized and non-computerized instruction to help 109 native speakers of Haitian Creole/French and Spanish, most of whom were recent immigrants, develop English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) native language, and content area skills for mainstreaming and continued academic success. Analysis of student achievement data indicate that the program met its objectives in ESL, native language arts, the content areas (biology, social studies, mathematics, American government, and United States history), and attendance. Staff development activities were offered. Parent involvement activities were also offered but received little response. It is recommended that the progam provide transportation and child care for parents who are members of the parent advisory commmittee in order to increase committee participation. (MSE)… [PDF]

Cadiente, Ronalda (1986). Juneau Indian Studies Elementary Curriculum Guide. Grades K-5. Designed to provide instruction in Tlingit culture as an integral part of the K-5 social studies curriculum, this guide presents teachers with extensive lesson plans and numerous resource materials. The units of study focus on the culture and environment of southeast Alaska and emphasize experiential learning activities. Each grade level–kindergarten through fifth–begins with an overview of the units and the social studies concepts dealt with. A summary of each unit follows with a day-by-day outline of lesson plans and the knowledge and skills taught or reinforced. Next come detailed, sequential lesson plans and illustrated handouts for students. Kindergarten units relate to the social studies concepts of one's self and one's surroundings and introduce students to the subsistence lifestyle of a Tlingit fish camp and the importance of the salmon as a food source. First grade units look more closely at the forest environment surrounding the fish camp. Second graders learn about… [PDF]

Campbell, Russell N.; Lindholm, Kathryn J. (1987). Conservation of Language Resources. Three successful school program models designed to help language minority students conserve the language skills acquired in their homes and continue normal native language development are described. The programs were developed to counteract a trend toward wasting valuable existing language skills and resources. The programs include: (1) an elementary level bilingual immersion program, implemented in four California public schools, in which both native English-speakers and native Spanish-speakers develop academic linguistic and metalinguistic skills in both languages; (2) a secondary level partial bilingual immersion program providing two tracks of formal Spanish instruction, intensive Spanish as a second language and Spanish for native speakers, in addition to traditional Spanish second language instruction; and (3) a program at the University of California at Los Angeles that permits registered Korean American students to enroll in an intensive Korean language program, involving… [PDF]

Bommelyn, Loren; And Others (1972). The Tolowa Language. A cultural and linguistic textbook on the Tolowa Indians of Northwestern California and Oregon provides a history of the tribe, a Tolowa Unifon chart and pronunciation guide, map of tribal lands with place names in Tolowa and English, stories, prayers, songs, genealogy, commonly-used words grouped topically, explanation in English of cultural activities, a dictionary (the longest section of the book), paradigm charts, and sample sentences. The tribal history describes the evolution of a written Tolowa language and the community effort to collect and preserve a vanishing culture. The map provides locations and names of Tolowa villages in English and Tolowa and accompanying lists provide names of rivers and other geographical entities in both languages. Eight stories, prayers/scriptures, and songs are in Tolowa with literal English translation. A tribal genealogy lists individuals by Tolowa and English names and provides a list of kinship names. Sections for commonly-used words…

Martynowych, Orest T. (1979). A Selective Preliminary Bibliography of Canadian Reference Materials Pertaining to Education within a Multicultural Context. This bibliography cites journal articles, research and educational reports, and books related to education within a multicultural context in Canada. The entries are classified under six sections which focus on: (1) implications of multiculturalism for Canadian educational policy, programs, and language; (2) immigrant and minority students' background, acculturation, language and education needs and services, and the effect of language and socioeconomic status on school achievement among these groups; (3) cross-cultural education, ethnic/racial attitudes, cultural awareness, ethnic identity, and self-concept; (4) teaching methods and approaches, social and psychological influences, and teacher and parent attitudes concerning second language learning; (5) general issues on and approaches to bilingualism, and descriptions of English-French programs; and (6) education, academic achievement, and cultural background of Canada natives (Indians, Eskimos, and Metis). (MJL)…

(1978). Bilingual, Bicultural, and Bidialectal Studies Related to Reading and Communication Skills: Abstracts of Doctoral Dissertations Published in \Dissertation Abstracts International,\ January through April 1978 (Vol. 38 Nos. 7 through 10). This collection of abstracts is part of a continuing series providing information on recent doctoral dissertations. The 12 titles deal with the following topics: the acquisition of bilingualism by infants and young children; psycholinguistic abilities of American Indian children; effects of creative dramatics on oral language abilities and self esteem of blacks, Chicanos, and Anglos; factors that affect Chicano and Anglo children's acquisition of knowledge from connected discourse; the relation between reading achievement and bidialectal oral language performance of black children; use of the language experience approach in summer schools for bilingual migrant children; reading problems of black children as assessed through the concept of syntactic distractibility; the relationship between teachers' attitudes toward black vernacular English and self concept formation in black children; the effect of folk legends told in the Chicano Spanish dialect on Chicano children's attitudes and…

(1977). Supplement to the Final Report on the Edgewood School Plan. Volume II. Prepared to assist professional educators and researchers who want greater detail on certain aspects of the evaluation of the five-year Experimental Schools Program conducted by the Edgewood Independent School District in San Antonio, Texas, this supplement to the Final Report on the Edgewood School Plan is composed of abstracts that give the basic design and instrumentation of the research, the findings from that particular investigation, and the conclusions that were drawn. The abstracts, which are arranged chronologically by submission date, describe historical background of the Edgewood District; self-concept studies of Mexican American students; first and second interim reports on the program; a comparative analysis of English and Spanish reading performance of Mexican American students; an instrumentation study of the Purdue Social Attitude Scales for Primary Children; social attitudes of South Texas primary students; locus of control and achievement of Mexican American…

(1978). Basic Skills Learning Centers Project. Annual Report for the Period October 1, 1978 – September 30, 1979. Program implementation is stressed in this final report of a three-year Basic Skills Learning Centers (BSLC) Project designed (1) to improve basic skills in reading, math, and reasoning and (2) to serve a target population of Spanish-speaking children from nonurban schools in five southwestern states. Section I is the annual report for 1978-79 and summarizes the year's activities, with emphasis on field services, staff training, and communication with participating schools. Covering the entire period from 1976-1979, Section II includes an overview of the project, its goals and target audience; a description of the programs and materials and their method of implementation; and a summary of the major strategies used to help the schools implement the programs. Numbers of students participating and student characteristics are included in this section. Use of bilingual instructional staff is discussed, and some problems with student record keeping procedures and delivery of services to… [PDF]

(1976). Basic Skills Learning Centers Evaluation. Final Report 1 October 1976 – 30 September 1979. Detailed program descriptions and discussion of research methodology are included in this independent evaluation of the Basic Skills Learning Centers (BSLC) Projects implemented by Southwest Educational Development Laboratory (SEDL) and Southwest Regional Laboratory (SWRL) and designed to improve basic reading and math instruction in nonurban elementary schools. Following an introductory statement of the scope and purpose of the evaluation, Chapter II describes the SEDL and SWRL-BSLC programs including materials, staff training and technical assistance components, and target populations (monolingual English-speaking students for SEDL, Spanish-speaking students for SWRL). Chapter III covers initial planning and development of the evaluation format, rationales for design decisions, and explanations of the methodological approach. Chapter IV contains extensive tabular and narrative analyses of test and survey data gathered during the evaluation. Program implementation and student test…

Desrochers, A.; Gardner, R. C. (1978). Cross-Cultural Contact: Correlates and Consequences. Research Bulletin No. 455. The purpose of this study was to examine some correlates and consequences of a four-day trip to a French-speaking community by 153 grade eight English Canadian students. The major findings are that: (1) Parents of the participants in the excursion differ from those of the 183 non-participants not in terms of socioeconomic status or educational level, but in attitudes concerning the value to their children of having contact with French Canadians, learning French and becoming bilingual; (2) Parental sociocultural attitudes, attitudes toward French television exposure and toward French as a school subject are significantly related to their child's language-related attitudes and motivation, but not to the child's French proficiency; and (3) Students who have more interaction with French Canadians, as assessed by either self report or peer judgments, return from bicultural excursions with more favorable attitudes toward the community and the language, less anxiety when using the… [PDF]