Colombi, M. Cecilia, Ed.; Roca, Ana, Ed. (2003). Mi Lengua: Spanish as a Heritage Language in the United States. This collection of papers includes the following: (1) "Insights from Research and Practice in Spanish as a Heritage Language" (M. Cecilia Colombi and Ana Roca); (2) "Toward a Theory of Heritage Language Acquisition: Spanish in the United States" (Andrew Lynch); (3) "Profiles of SNS Students in the Twenty-First Century: Pedagogical Implications of the Changing Demographics and Social Status of U.S. Hispanics" (Maria M. Carreira); (4) "Un Efoque Funcional para la Ensenanza del Ensayo Expositivo" (M. Cecilia Colombi); (5) "La Ensenanza del Espanol en Nuevo Mexico: ?Revitalizacion o Erradicacion de la Variedad Chicana?" (Ysaura Bernal-Enriquez and Eduardo Hernandez Chavez); (6) "'Spanish in My Blood': Children's Spanish Language Development in Dual-Language Immersion Programs" (Ernestina Pesina Hernandez, Hinako Takahashi-Breines, and Rebecca Blum-Martinez); (7) "Minority Perspectives on Language: Mexican and…

Brunn, Michael (2000). Migrant Children in the Rural Midwest: A Collaboration of Teachers and Administrators To Reform School Programs. Within a 3-year period, a rural Midwestern school district's Hispanic student population increased from 3 to over 180 due to the hiring of migrant workers by a local meat packing plant. A qualitative study using interviews and classroom observations examined the processes through which 23 teachers and 5 administrators in this school district formulated an effective instructional program for recently arrived Spanish-speaking students. Input was sought from teachers, the Hispanic parents, and the Hispanic students. The change process consisted of three phases. The Program-Exploring Phase established a common base of understanding among the three stakeholder groups about effective bilingual programs. In the Consensus-Building Phase, a steering committee of representative stakeholders drew on the discussions of the first phase to develop a Statement of Principles and Beliefs (SPB). During the "Response and Ratification Phase," the SPB was sent back to stakeholders for their… [PDF]

Monzo, Lilia D.; Rueda, Robert S. (2000). Apprenticeship for Teaching: Professional Development Issues Surrounding the Collaborative Relationship between Teachers and Paraeducators. Research Report. This report discusses findings from a study that examined issues surrounding the collaborative relationship between Latino paraeducators and the classroom teachers with whom they worked. Specifically, the study examined the types of activities that the paraeducators engaged in, the input they had in classroom instructional activities, the assistance they received from teachers and others, and the factors that detracted from or fostered collaborative relationships. The 32 participants in the study were drawn from two large Southern California public elementary schools that serve primarily working class Latino limited English speaking students. Findings reveal that a lack of interaction between teachers and paraeducators allowed little time for paraeducators to ask questions of the teachers or for the teachers to assist the paraeducators in the development of effective teaching strategies. Both parties indicated that more opportunities for interaction would be beneficial. It was also… [PDF]

Goodwin, Judy; And Others (1991). A Study of the Bilingual Instructional Support Component in New Instructional Model Schools. Prepared Pursuant to the Remedial Plan for Limited English Proficiency Asian Students. Report No. 9119. This study assessed the bilingual instructional support component in Philadelphia's (Pennsylvania) New Instructional Model schools in the 1990-91 school year. Focus was on the following topics: (1) the extent to which the bilingual instructional support component had been implemented in the 32 schools; (2) the appropriateness and quality of the tutoring provided at the 11 schools selected for in-depth study; and (3) Asian high school students' perceptions on how well the bilingual instructional support components met their need for academic assistance. Data included that 118 tutors had been hired, of whom 71 percent were Asian. Observation data showed that in most high schools classes, teachers and tutors circulated to assist students. At the elementary school level, regular English-as-a-Second-Language (ESOL) instruction took place while tutors worked with one or more students at the back of the classroom or another location. Teacher interviews showed general satisfaction with…

Li, Keh-nan; Patton, David B. (1991). Asian Remedial Plan: Compliance Report. Report No. 9116. This report describes the following five areas of compliance in the Philadelphia (Pennsylvania) public school Remedial Plan for Services to Asian Limited English Proficiency (LEP) students: (1) counseling services; (2) assignment of students to English-as-a-Second Language (ESOL) Levels 1 and 2; (3) pupil support committees (PSCs); (4) personnel/deployment of Asian staff in an Asian language; and (5) instructional materials. The study gathered data using Compliance Checklists completed in December, 1990. The following results are highlighted: (1) 22 of 32 New Instructional Model schools reported that Asian Bilingual Counseling Assistants were helping LEP students with their adjustment to the school setting; (2) 26 schools reported that ESOL level 1 students were preliterate in both English and their primary language and that students were carefully monitored for prompt movement to ESOL Level 2; (3) 29 schools reported that students experiencing significant learning and/or adjustment…

Gladstein, Jill, Ed.; Silver, Rita Elaine, Ed. (1994). Working Papers in Educational Linguistics. Volume 10, Number 1. Working Papers in Educational Linguistics, v10 n1 Spr. This collection of six papers consists of works in progress undertaken by students and faculty of the University of Pennsylvania's Language in Education Division of the Graduate School of Education. The papers are: (1) "Language Planning and Identity Planning: An Emergent Understanding" (Rebecca Freeman); (2) "Communicative Functions of Speech in a Monolingual Kindergarten" (Mary Jean Tecce deCarlo); (3) "Acquisition Planning, Ethnic Discourse, and the Ecuadorian Nation-State" (Kendall King); (4) "'Yes I Think It's You': A Discussion of Intercultural Communication" (Kristen Loheyde and Nancy Kunz); (5) "Targeting Morpho-Syntax in Children's ESL: An Empirical Study of the Use of Interactive Goal-Based Tasks" (Allison Mackey); and (6) "Ethnic Pride and the Classroom: An Ethnographic Study of Classroom Behavior-Norms and Themes" (Kate Menken). Each paper is followed by a reference list. (MDM)… [PDF]

Berney, Tomi D.; Velasquez, Clara (1990). Project COMPUOCC.LEP, 1988-89. Evaluation Section Report [and] Executive Summary. OREA Report. Project COMPUOCC.LEP, a Title VII-funded program of instructional and support services, served 400 Hispanic students of limited English proficiency with special handicapping conditions. It also served 36 special education teachers at 14 Bronx (New York) intermediate and junior high schools, offering on-site technical assistance in curriculum development, occupational and vocational instruction, and computer-assisted instruction. The project used computers to teach writing and career education skills, and provided students with supplementary English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) and Native Language Arts instruction at the project's learning centers. The project's non-instructional component consisted of staff and curriculum development as well as activities to involve parents. The project met its computer-assisted instruction, career education, and staff development objectives, partially met its curriculum development objectives, but failed to meet its ESL or parental involvement… [PDF]

Keyes, Jose Luis; And Others (1983). DeWitt Clinton High School. Bilingual-Bicultural Program. O.E.E. Evaluation Report, 1981-1982. The Bilingual-Bicultural Program at DeWitt Clinton High School, Bronx, New York, was designed to provide support services to students with problems in reading and writing skills, and in linguistic, academic, and classroom adjustment. The program offered instruction in English as a Second language (ESL), Spanish for native speakers, Spanish as a second language (SSL), and bicultural content area courses to 214 students in 1982. An evaluation of the program, based on students' achievement in English language development, mastery of their native language, mathematics, social studies, and science showed: (1) levels 9 and 10 students demonstrated a moderate improvement in English, while level 11 students showed a slight decline; (2) the performance of students at all levels and grades improved in Spanish; (3) level 11 students showed a moderate improvement in mathematics, while level 9 and 10 students showed a slight decline; (4) the majority of the students who received instruction in… [PDF]

Torres, Judith A.; And Others (1983). Sarah J. Hale High School. Project BECOME. O.E.E. Evaluation Report, 1981-1982. Project BECOME at Sarah J. Hale High School in Brooklyn, New York, was designed to provide instruction in English as a second language and in native language arts, as well as bilingual instruction in social studies, mathematics, and science, for Hispanic and Haitian high school students of limited English proficiency. In 1981-82, the second year of implementation, the project served 210 students. This report describes the project context, participant characteristics, objectives, organization, staffing, instructional activities, noninstructional activities (support services, curriculum development, parent involvement, staff development, and extracurricular activities), and evaluation. Evaluation results indicate that, in general, the program participants (1) met the criterion objective of one English syntax objective mastered per month of instruction; (2) made gains in English language skills, native language arts (Spanish, or French and Creole) mathematics, science, and social… [PDF]

Yap, Kim O.; And Others (1988). SLEP Student Achievement: Some Pertinent Variables and Policy Implications. An evaluation of the Honolulu (Hawaii) School District's program of supplementary instruction to limited English proficient students is presented. The program was designed to aid in the adjustment to the American culture and school life in Hawaii. The evaluation addressed whether the program is meeting its objectives, whether English second language (ESL) instruction, as contrasted with bilingual instruction, should be continued, whether the program's pull-out design should be continued, and how program costs relate to outcomes. Results show that participants are making gains in oral English, reading, language arts, and mathematics beyond expectations of comparable students in the regular classes, as measured by standardized norm-referenced tests. In narrowing the achievement gap caused by their limited English proficiency, the students have in many instances surpassed the national growth norms. In addition, the students are generally doing satisfactory or better work in the regular… [PDF]

(1987). Central Intermediate School. 1986-87 Profile. This building profile provides standard information about one of the 129 schools of the Cleveland Public Schools (Ohio) in 1986-87. Information for the Central Intermediate School (CIS), serving grades 7 and 8, is presented along with comparative data for the school cluster and for the district as a whole. In 1986-87, 404 Black students and 237 others were enrolled in the CIS. Information presented includes: (1) mobility rate, the change in school population in the year; (2) number of students served by bilingual programs; (3) enrollment; (4) number of corporal punishments; (5) number of students suspended; (6) number of suspensions; (7) attendance rate; (8) failure rate; (9) dropout rate; (10) total teacher contracts; and (11) mastery of reading objectives. Additional information includes comparative reading comprehension and mathematics concepts and applications scores. Five-year goals and objectives are summarized. The remedial order by the United States District Court in 1978 to…

Shore, Rima, Ed.; And Others (1981). Project ECC: Equal Career Opportunities for Bilingual High School Students. E.S.E.A. Title VII Final Evaluation Report, 1980-1981. Equal Career Opportunities is a program that aims to provide instruction in English language skills while offering bilingual instruction in basic skills and pre-occupational training to limited-English-proficient Spanish-speaking and Haitian high school students at three schools in New York City. This report describes the program as it was implemented in 1980-81. The report discusses the program settings, participant characteristics, philosophy and organization, student placement, instructional offerings, career orientation and supportive services, curriculum development, staff development, program implementation, and program evaluation in each of the three sites. Evaluation results indicate that: (1) variable gains were achieved in mastery of English syntax objectives; (2) in most cases, the passing rate in mathematics, social studies, and native language arts met the program's criterion objective; (3) improvement in attitudes toward school surpassed the criterion objective in all… [PDF]

Fillmore, Lily Wong; And Others (1985). Learning English through Bilingual Instruction. Final Report. A three-year research project investigated the effects of instructional practices and patterns of language use in bilingual and English-only classrooms on general academic development and the development of English language skills by limited-English-proficient students, especially those skills needed to participate fully in the society's schools. The subjects were native Chinese- and Spanish-speaking students with two to three years of exposure to English, from 17 bilingual program classes. Tests, classroom observation, and audio and video recordings focusing on instructional situations were used to assess oral and written language comprehension and production, subject-area academic achievement, and the instructional practices and patterns of instructional language use. It was found that variables influencing development of English production skills included: interactional opportunities, especially for Hispanic students and those with lower initial English proficiency; quality of… [PDF]

Kazlow, Carole; Lachman, Susan (1980). Bilingual Program-District 13. Funded under ESEA Title VII. Final Report, September 1, 1979-August 31, 1980. This report is an evaluation of a Title VII Bilingual Program conducted in New York City in 1979-1980 for Spanish speaking students. A program description outlines the methods used for selecting students for the bilingual program. A discussion of the evaluation's design and objectives is also included. The report presents student test scores in Spanish and English reading achievement along with explanatory notes. The evaluation considered the following facets of the program: (1) rooms and materials; (2) class structure and departmentalized instruction; (3) language use; (4) bicultural aspects; (5) parental involvement; (6) staff development; and (7) curriculum development. The report concludes with a series of recommendations regarding testing, grouping, staff development, resources, and student placement. (APM)… [PDF]

(1979). Minority and Second Language Education, Elementary and Secondary Levels. Time Devoted to Second Language Instruction. This publication provides information on programs of study in Canada under the following headings: (1) the language of the minority group (French in nine of the provinces, English in Quebec) as a subject of study, showing grade enrollments and participation rates; (2) the language of the minority qroup as a first language (designed for French mother-tongue children outside Quebec and for English mother-tongue children in Quebec) providing enrollments, participation rates, and participation indices; and (3) French immersion programs outside the province of Quebec. In addition to the program descriptions and information, an overview is provided of the three programs as they are offered throughout the country. The backqround to the provincial programs is discussed and some cautionary notes with respect to the use of the data are provided. (Author/AMH)…

(1978). The Education of Migrant Workers and their Families. Case Studies Undertaken for the National Commissions of Finland, France, Sweden, Yugoslavia. UNESCO Educational Studies and Documents No 27. The report consists of four case studies which show the extent and importance of the problem of education of migrant workers and their families as seen by Finland, France, Sweden, and Yugoslavia. Dealing mainly with the education of second generation Finnish workers in Sweden, the first study addresses the teaching of the mother tongue and the host language in the context of the migrant family's socio-cultural situation. Trends in the socio-educational situation of migrants in France are discussed in the second study; some activities selected, either because they have been undertaken on a large scale or because of their experimental character and the results' qualitative value are analyzed. Topic of the third study is the different arrangements for teaching the immigrants' mother tongue in the Swedish schools. The last study discusses the socio-educational position of migrant workers in receiving countries, and what Yugoslavia is doing, both at home and abroad, to train its migrant…

Lum, John Bernard (1971). An Effectiveness Study of English as a Second Language (ESL) and Chinese Bilingual Methods. This study investigates which teaching style-Chinese bilingual or English as a second language–leads to greater oral English maturity and how useful the Chinese language is in helping a non-English-speaking Chinese person learn oral English. In the English-as-a-second-language method, the student's native language is used sparingly to avoid linguistic interference. Audiolingual means are used to internatlize grammatical structures. The Chinese bilingual style uses Chinese to teach English and combines techniques from other methods. Details of the study are reported; statistical ratings of oral language maturity and language skills are presented. Recommendations, topics for further study, and a bibliography are included. (VM)… [PDF]

De La Ronde, Chris (2005). Title V, Part A Summary Report: 2004-2005. Publication Number 04.06. Online Submission This report summarizes evaluation results for AISD's federally-funded Title V, Part A innovative program activities for the 2004-2005 school year…. [PDF]

Garcia, Eugene E. (1997). The Education of Hispanics in Early Childhood: Of Roots and Wings. Young Children, v52 n3 p5-14 Mar. Notes the challenges posed by cultural diversity in the United States. Presents a demographic assessment of factors relating to the schooling of culturally diverse populations, analysis of challenges associated with the growing number of language-minority students who are Hispanic, and conceptual and empirical perspectives precipitating a more informed approach to the education of Hispanics in early childhood. (TJQ)…

Oromaner, Mark (1995). A Research Note on a Deviant Case: The Majority Enrollment of Full-Time Students at HCCC. Data Report No. 95.03. Since the fall of 1979, over 50% of the student population at Hudson County Community College (HCCC), in New Jersey, has attended on a full-time basis, with 62% of fall 1994 students attending full-time. This characteristic makes HCCC a deviant case among community colleges where the nationwide average of full-time enrollment status is only 36%. A comparison of characteristics for HCCC's part- and full-time students for fall 1994 indicated that there were no significant differences in gender, that Hispanic students were more likely than white students to enroll full-time, and that as student age increased the percentage of full-time students decreased. The fact that 70% of the Hispanic students were attending full-time suggests that enrollment in English as a Second Language (ESL) and bilingual courses may play a role in the college's high full-time percentages. Hispanic students accounted for 47% of HCCC's total fall 1994 enrollment and represented 80% of students enrolled in… [PDF]

(1996). Adelante con Ganas!: A Title VII Transitional Bilingual Program in Burbank Middle School 1993-96. Research Report on Educational Grants. "Adelante…con Ganas!" (Forward…with Enthusiasm) was a 3-year transitional bilingual program implemented at Burbank Middle School in the Houston Independent School District (Texas). The program consisted of three levels of bilingual instruction, from preliterate through intermediate, in which students were placed following state and district guidelines. Instruction in this program was designed for students with little or no English facility, including limited English proficient students with little or no formal schooling. An evaluation involved analysis of 3 years of program data regarding students' standardized test scores, staff surveys, parent surveys, student surveys, and class observations. The findings indicate that 269 students enrolled in the program in the 3 years. Students in the program made significant progress in mathematics and Spanish reading. At the end of the first year of instruction, English oral proficiency of students was still at the…

Volk, Dinah (1992). A Case Study of Parent Involvement in the Homes of Three Puerto Rican Kindergartners. This paper describes three case studies of interactions between mothers and their kindergarten children. Mothers and children were of Puerto Rican descent and lived in a midwestern city. Children were bilingual, but used English more competently than Spanish. During the children's kindergarten year, researchers observed mother-child interactions in the home. Observations were also conducted in the children's classrooms. Verbal interactions in the home were recorded and the recordings transcribed. Two interaction types, instructional and informal, based on whether the mother played the role of a teacher, were identified from the transcripts. A total of 49 percent of verbal utterances had an instructional intent, and 51 percent were informal. Interactions between the children and their mothers are described, and transcriptions of some verbal exchanges are provided. Interactions between the children and their teachers are also described. These studies imply that teachers should: (1)…

Garcia, Ruth Fran (1992). Students' Perceptions of the Classroom Climate: A Descriptive Research Study. This study examined the attitudes of fifth and sixth grade students from Chicago (Illinois) toward classroom climate in an effort to better understand factors that would encourage greater self-concept, higher achievement, and student and teacher behaviors. The study population included 185 fifth and sixth grade students attending the Philip Sheridan Elementary School in Chicago. The students were from low-income families in an area of depleted jobs and much gang activity. The students were African American and Hispanic American, and 50 students were in Spanish/English bilingual classrooms with a bilingual teacher. The 60-item Classroom Climate Checklist (CCC) was administered to students over a 2-day period. A short oral explanation was given by the researcher, and the CCC was administered and collected immediately on completion. Findings indicate that of the three items rated as strong positive aspects of classroom climate, two are teacher-directed or teacher-caused: the teacher… [PDF]

Shore, Rima; And Others (1983). South Shore High School. Project VIBES. O.E.E. Evaluation Report, 1981-1982. In 1981-82, Project VIBES at South Shore High School in Brooklyn, New York, provided instruction in English as a second language (ESL) and French language arts, and bilingual mathematics, social studies, and science for Haitian high school students of limited English proficiency. The project also conducted classes in ESL, Hebrew, and Spanish language arts; and environmental science (taught in English, but geared to the needs of students with limited English proficiency) for Israeli and Hispanic participants. The report describes the project content, participants, instructional component, noninstructional activities (support services, curriculum development, and staff development), and evaluation. Evaluation findings indicate that: (1) achievement gains in English syntax were below the criterion objective; (2) passing rates in mathematics, science, and social studies were above 70 percent; (3) passing rates in native language arts were 80 percent or better (except for a 60 percent… [PDF]

Wilson, Edward, Ed. (1987). The Special Student. English in Texas, v18 n3 Spr. The challenges and rewards of dealing with the many types of students that can be found in today's English classrooms–gifted, handicapped, learning disabled, second language learners–are addressed in this focused journal issue. The titles of the articles and their authors are as follows: (1) \Help Me Help You\ (L. Quitman Troika); (2) \Students with Learning Difficulties in the English Classroom\ (J. M. Kanning); (3) \What's Dyslexia? Texas Teachers' Dilemma\ (E. B. Osburn, S. G. Cohen, and P. Swicegood); (4) \Encouraging Process over Product: Writing with Second Language Learners\ (N. L. Hadaway and V. F. Tishe); (5) \How to Work with Language-Different Children in a Regular Classroom\ (A. H. Cashman); (6) \France and America Meet at the Lectern: An Experiment in Team Teaching\ (R. A. Mottram and M. Schock); (7) \The Handicapable Kid: A Catalyst for Growth\ (H. Skrovan); (8) \Closed Faces\ (J. Carlile); (9) \The Final Conference\ (L. D. Evans); (10) \'Gifted' Low Achievers\ (L….

Fischer, Sara; Strum, Irene (1986). Procedure for Establishing a Cut-Off Score for Determining Limited English Proficiency among Severely and Profoundly Handicapped Students. A 5-item rating scale was developed for the New York City schools to determine eligibility for English as a Second Language instruction in Category C exceptional students exempted from testing. Most students follow a curriculum of daily living skills, and many are nonverbal. The test was piloted with 163 students including severely, trainable, and profoundly mentally handicapped and autistic children. Meaningful responses, whether verbal or nonverbal, indicated English proficiency. Both English-speaking and bilingual samples were included in order to test the Language Proficiency Questionnaires ability to discriminate between the two groups. Results indicated that in most cases the form discriminated well between the bilingual and English-only groups. This difference was less clear with nonverbal students because of the difficulty in assessing language proficiency. It was, therefore, recommended that the form be modified for autistic and severely and profoundly mentally handicapped…

Shore, Rima, Ed.; And Others (1981). Grover Cleveland High School Basic Bilingual Program. E.S.E.A. Title VII Final Evaluation Report, 1980-1981. This report describes, provides demographic data for, and evaluates the effectiveness of a bilingual program for Spanish and Italian speaking students in Grover Cleveland High School, Queens, New York. The program relies upon individualized instruction and aims to mainstream students into the regular pre-college curriculum within 2 years, if possible. Bilingual instruction is given in language skills, mathematics, and some social studies courses, while participating students attend regular courses in other subject areas. Also part of the program is a noninstructional component, including curriculum and staff development, provision of supportive services, parent participation, and a focus on students' affective domain. The data provided in this report demonstrate significant achievement gains among participating students, as well as the successful development of academic and extracurricular activities. (GC)… [PDF]

(1980). Comprehensive High School Bilingual Program. ESEA Title VII. Final Evaluation Report, 1979-80. This is an evaluation report of a Title VII Bilingual Program conducted at five New York City High Schools in 1979-80. The report contains a program description and information on the schools' demographic context and student characteristics. Instructional components of the program discussed include: (1) student placement, programming, and mainstreaming; (2) course offerings; (3) "a teaching reading through the arts" program; and (4) special instructional features. Areas of the non-instructional component covered include: (1) curriculum and materials development; (2) supportive services; (3) staffing and staff development; (4) parental and community involvement; and (5) affective domain. Tables show the performance of Spanish, Italian, and Chinese students on the Criterion Referenced English Syntax Test and on mathematics, science, social studies, native language arts, and content area achievement tests. Attendance figures are also given. (APM)… [PDF]

Vail, Edward O., Ed. (1967). Administrator's In-Depth Seminars in Problems of Desegregation as They Relate to Large City Schools; Summaries of Seminar Discussions. A series of seminars for Los Angeles school superintendents was held in 1967 and was addressed by various experts. The purpose of the project was to seek possible solutions to problems of desegregated large-city schools. Summarized are the following discussion sessions: (1) Robert J. Havighurst, "The Integration Crisis"; (2) Julian Samora, "The Spanish Speaking People in the United States"; (3) Gordon Klopf, "Developing School Staffs"; (4) Ernesto Galarza, "Schools Faced with Multiplicity of Leadership"; and (5) James Farmer, "School Administration in the Negro Ghetto." (NH)… [PDF]

Madsen, Betty M., Ed.; Slager, William R., Ed. (1970). English for American Indians: A Newsletter of the Office of Education Programs, Bureau of Indian Affairs, United States Department of the Interior. This Bureau of Indian Affairs publication focuses on the problems of beginning reading in English. Ralph Robinett's \The Teaching of English Reading to American Indian Children\ discusses basic premises and approaches to reading for speakers of English as a second language or as a standard dialect. The \Information Exchange\ describes projects and reports primarily concerned with the Navajo–a reading study, a reading survey, a kindergarten program, and an orthography conference. Reviewed also are articles by Roger Shuy, William Labov, and Ronald Wardhaugh, and an anthology edited by A. C. Aarons, B. Y. Gordon, and W. A. Stewart. The subjects reviewed cover reading materials, problems, and instruction, and linguistic-cultural differences in American education. The \Materials\ section describes the Sullivan Programmed Readers, the Miami Linguistic Readers, the Alaskan Readers, and readers for Cherokee, Hopi, and Apache. See ED 026 629, ED 027 546, and ED 029 298 for the first three… [PDF]