Parsons, Elizabeth A. (1983). Factors Influencing the Teaching of Amish Students in the Public School. To examine available research, largely done after 1965, and identify factors influencing academic performance of Amish students in public schools, particularly in Indiana, material was divided into four annotated bibliographic sections: Amish definition of education (three items); Amish attitudes toward education, as reflected in their society (eight items); Amish educational methods (six items); educational achievement of Amish students (five items). Conclusions were: education is extremely important to the Amish, but must have practical applications; Amish prefer to educate their children in their own parochial schools, using Amish teachers who teach the 3 R's and uphold Christian morals; if parochial schools are unavailable, Amish parents will send children to public schools and attempt to counteract worldly influence. Research also indicated that: Amish schools are successful by worldly standards; although curriculum is less varied than in public schools, Amish pupils perform at…

Bex, Tony, Ed.; And Others (1978). ESPMENA Bulletin (English for Special Purposes in the Middle East and North Africa), No. 10, Spring 1978. This bulletin contains articles of interest to persons and institutions engaged in teaching English for special purposes (ESP) and allied activities. "Developments in ESP Courses and Centres" gives information on programs in specialized English and French. "Teaching and Learning Materials" presents techniques for teaching conceptual paragraphs, outlining, "if sentences" in instructions, and using lecturettes. "Problems and Puzzles" discusses footnotes, social language needs, sentence writing, and titles. "How Common are 'Common Core' Words?" by John Kirkman, raises questions about the probability of nouns in a ready-made general ESP program. "A Verb Frequency Count in Legal English," by Mike Friel, includes words from legal texts as well as samples of the students own writing. An"items received" section provides an annotated list of newsletters and books. Three reviews complete the issue: "25 Centuries of…

Donaldson, Judy P. (1980). Transcultural Picture Word List: For Teaching English to Children from Any of Twenty-One Language Backgrounds. This instructional aid for elementary and secondary teachers of English as a second language recommends itself especially to those situations where a bilingual teacher and a formal bilingual program are not available. The first item presented is a letter to parents translated into each of the 21 languages covered. The letter urges the parents to reinforce at home what the student is being taught in school. Information on syntax variants and common pronunciation problems is then presented for each language. Several sections are devoted to transcultural picture word lists of things, opposites, place or position, actions, colors, numbers, and shapes, with the English word for the object, action, etc. printed under the picture. The book concludes with the "220 Basic Sight Word List" of Dolch in the various languages. (JB)…

Kee, Daniel W.; Sherwin, Trisha (1978). Pictorial Elaboration Effects on Mexican-American Children's Retention of Noun Pairs. The present experiment investigated: (1) the effect of pictorial elaboration on low socioeconomic-status Mexican-American children's long term memory for noun pairs; (2) the effects of labeling mode on estimates of paired-associate acquisition and retention; and (3) the interrelationships between paired-associate task performance and school achievement. The basic design was a 2×2 crossed factorial with pictorial presentation (standard vs. elaborated) and labeling mode (English vs. Spanish). In the acquisition phase of the experiment, 60 second grade children learned a twenty-pair list of common noun referents labeled in English or Spanish. The children learned the list to a leniently scored criterion of 16/20 correct by the study-test paired-associate method. After seven days, retention was assessed by cued-recall and multichoice tests. The results indicated that while elaborated pictorial presentation enhanced the rate of original learning, it neither helped nor hindered the…

(2001). EFF HOT Topics. Volume 1, Number 1, Spring 2001. National Institute for Literacy HOT Topics is a new quarterly publication from the Equipped for the Future (EFF) National Center. HOT stands for Highlights On Teaching, and this publication is committed to providing teachers and tutors with tools and ideas for teaching using the EFF Framework and Standards. This first issue of HOT Topics focuses on strategies that use the EFF framework for goal-setting. These strategies, developed by practitioners, help move learners from generalized long-term goals to more specific short-term goals. This issue contains the following articles: (1) EFF Frames the Goal-Setting Process; (2) 3 Mind Maps; (3) Basketball Goal Activity; (4) SMART Goals; (5) The Goal-Setting Form: Another Tool to Focus Learners; (6) \But I've Got New Learners…\; and (7) Online Resources…. [PDF]

Mesthrie, Rajend, Ed. (2001). Concise Encyclopedia of Sociolinguistics. This book provides comprehensive information on all aspects of sociolinguistics. It includes 285 articles, of which 80 are short biographical entries. Fifty of the biographies and 42 other articles are entirely new, while the remaining entries are revised and updated from the "Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics." The book provides access to important concepts in adjacent disciplines (e.g., role theory or social class from sociology). It also gives an account of methods and approaches taken by scholars in different branches of the discipline and a sense of sociolinguistics as a profession by reference to its key journals, societies, and conferences and by including brief portraits of its leading practitioners. The book's 10 sections include articles on the following: (1)"Foundations of Society and Language"; (2) "Language and Interaction"; (3) "Language Variation: Style, Situation, Function"; (4) "Language Variation and Change:…

Ostler, Nicholas, Ed. (1998). Endangered Languages: What Role for the Specialist? Proceedings of the Foundation for Endangered Languages (FEL) Conference (2nd, Edinburgh, Scotland, September 25-27, 1998). The papers included here examine issues related to the role outside specialists, such as linguists, educators, or media professionals, can play in the preservation of endangered languages. Language communities must continue to use their mother tongues if the languages are to survive, and this has led to questions about whether outside organizations have the right to intervene. The proceedings of the second annual Foundation for Endangered Languages (FEL) Conference is divided into several sections. "Successful Interactions" section includes three reports from linguists and educators on work with three different communities, with an outlook on what has been learned and the challenges for the future. "Understanding the Language from the Outside" is more sociolinguistic in orientation, looking at large communities more dispassionately, from a perspective other than that of an active collaborator. "Understanding From the Inside" turns to the communities'…

Albus, Deb; Liu, Kristi; Thompson, Sandy; Thurlow, Martha (1999). Participation and Performance of Students from Non-English Language Backgrounds: Minnesota's 1996 Basic Standards Tests in Reading and Math. Minnesota Report. In the assessment literature, a general recommendation has been to disaggregate scores and other data for students with limited English proficiency (LEP). This has rarely been done for most non-English language background (NELB) students in the United States, with the partial exception of Spanish speakers. Nationwide Spanish speakers make up the largest group of LEP/NELB students, but in Minnesota Southeast Asian students make up the largest single group of students with a language other than English spoken at home. While LEP/NELB students share some common characteristics, there are enough noteworthy differences to justify separate studies. This document reports on the achievement of LEP/NELB students from the largest seven language groups in Minnesota (Hmong, Spanish, Vietnamese, Lao, Cambodian, African languages, Russian) during the 1995-1996 school year when the Basic Standards Tests were first implemented. The data also records whether the student received any… [PDF]

Gifford, Bernard R.; Valdes, Guadalupe (2006). The Linguistic Isolation of Hispanic Students in California's Public Schools: The Challenge of Reintegration. Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, v105 n2 p125-154 Oct. According to Frankenberg, Lee, and Orfield, segregation for black students declined substantially after the landmark 1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision, "Brown v. Board of Education," reaching its lowest point 30 years later. By comparison, Latino students have experienced "steadily rising segregation since the 1960s." Unlike black students who have been the focus of desegregation orders and Office of Civil Rights enforcements, Latinos have remained segregated both because of limited policy efforts on their behalf and because of their increasing numbers. In this chapter, the authors focus on the educational challenges of linguistic isolation for Latino students by examining the case of California. They provide a historical overview of Spanish in California, tracing the climate of evolving hostility toward Spanish and Spanish-speaking immigrants, and describing the challenges of achieving equity for Latino students segregated by language. The authors address four… [Direct]

(2004). Integrating Immigrant Children into Schools in Europe: Liechtenstein–National Description 2003/04. Eurydice The national contributions contained in this paper and on the Eurydice website formed the basis for the comparative study on the integration at school of immigrant children in Europe. Each contribution has exactly the same structure with four main sections entitled as follows: (1) National definitions and demographic context of immigration; (2) Measures offering school-based support to immigrant children and their families; (3) Intercultural approaches in education; and (4) Evaluation, pilot projects, debates and forthcoming reforms. This paper focuses on the integration at school of immigrant children in Liechtenstein. [CD-ROM is not included with this publication. For the main report, "Integrating Immigrant Children into Schools in Europe: Measures to Foster Communication with Immigrant Families and Heritage Language Teaching for Immigrant Children," see ED539128.]… [Direct]

Gonz√°lez, Rosa Mar√≠a (2006). Bilingual/ESL Programs Evaluation Summary: 2005-2006. Publication Number 05.19. Online Submission This report summarizes Austin Independent School District's (AISD's) 2005-2006 bilingual and English as a second language programs…. [PDF]

Creaser, Barbara; Dau, Elizabeth (1995). The Anti-Bias Approach in Early Childhood. This book on an anti-bias approach to early childhood education addresses aspects of diversity such as gender, race, and language within Australian society and provides strategies for working with families and staff to challenge existing attitudes and practices. Key features of the book include case studies showing anti-bias principles in action, questions for discussion and references at the end of each chapter, and a glossary of key terms. The chapters are: (1) "Children and Bias" (Anne Glover); (2) "Creating an Anti-Bias Environment" (Rosemary Green); (3) "Cultural Diversity" (Mary Vajda); (4) "The Gender Factor" (Glenda MacNaughton); (5) "Responding to Special Needs" (Anne Palmer); (6) "Linguistic Diversity" (Leonie Arthur); (7) "Exploring Families; The Diversity and the Issues" (Elizabeth Dau); (8) "Cross-Cultural Challenges in Early Childhood Education" (Emione [Emmy] Kiriakou); (9) "'Men…

Macdonald, C. A. (1990). Standard Three General Science Research 1987-1988. (A Final Report of the Threshold Project). The superordinate problem that the Threshold Project addressed is the nature of the language and learning difficulties that South African Standard 3 (Std 3) children experience when they change from their mother tongue to English as a medium for instruction. The primary focus of the Threshold Project work in 1987 was on a section of the South African Std 3 general science syllabus entitled plant structure, growth, and reproduction. As an aid to curriculum construction, this relatively non-technical report describes learning theories, reviews the educational research, and reports the results of pre and posttests to assess content knowledge and science process skills. Some of the major conclusions of the report are summarized as follows: (1) Research in the field of alternate conceptions in the South African context needs to be done; (2) a teacher-centered enquiry approach or transition model is the recommended form of instruction; (3) students whose native language was Setswana and… [PDF]

Meriam, J. L. (1938). Learning English Incidentally: A Study of Bilingual Children. Bulletin 1937, No. 15. This classic study is one of a series of reports of investigations carried out during 1936 and 1937 under the "Project in Research in Universities" of the Office of Education. The report describes work done during a 6-year period (1930-36) in a school for Spanish-speaking children where English (language, spelling, writing, reading) was not taught as a subject but was acquired incidentally in the course of normal childhood activities. The work described took place at La Jolla School–which had an enrollment of approximately 180 Mexican children–in Placentia, California. Chapters 1 and 2 discuss problems of educating non-English-speaking children; Chapter 3 focuses on the problems of the Mexican American child with sections on racial background and social status, income and health handicaps, and school performance. Chapter 4 describes the school and its experimental curriculum based on four major subjects: (1) learning to play wholesome games; (2) learning to make things,… [PDF]

Bruck, Margaret (1978). The Suitability of Early French Immersion Programs for the Language Disabled Child. This is the second report of a longitudinal project, initiated in 1970, in which children with and without language problems are identified in French immersion and English kindergartens and closely monitored to the end of grade 3. This study investigates the desirability of early French immersion program for English-speaking children with language learning disabilities. The primary focus of the research is to determine whether these children should be left in the French immersion program or be transferred to an all-English program. The four groups selected for study comprise children with language disabilities in French immersion programs (FP) and in English classes (EP), children with normal language development in French immersion programs (FC) and in English classes (EC). A comparison of the performance of the FP children on a number of academic, cognitive and linguistic tests to that of the EP children and to the two normal control groups indicates that the FP children acquire…

Rivers, Wilga M. (1972). Speaking in Many Tongues: Essays in Foreign-Language Teaching. Expanded 2nd Edition. This volume includes the following seventeen essays on foreign language teaching: (1) \Rules, Patterns, and Creativity\; (2) \Talking Off the Tops of Their Heads\; (3) \From Linguistic Competence to Communicative Competence\; (4) \Testing and Student Learning\; (5) \Contrastive Linguistics in Textbook and Classroom\; (6) \From Skill Acquisition to Language Control\; (7) \Motivating through Classroom Techniques\; (8) \Motivation in Bilingual Programs\; (9) \The Foreign Language Teacher and Cognitive Psychology or Where Do We Go from Here?\; (10) \Linguistic and Psychological Factors in Speech Perception and Their Implications for Teaching Materials\; (11) \Foreign Languages in a Time of Change\; (12) \From the Pyramid to the Commune: The Evolution of the Foreign-Language Department\; (13) \The Non-Major: Tailoring the Course to Fit the Person – Not the Image\; (14) \University of Illinois Questionnaire of Student Interests in Foreign Languages\; (15) \Teacher-Student Relations:…

Brunner, Anita; Underwood, Karen (1991). Evaluation of Programs for Limited English Proficient Students, Fiscal Year 1991 (School Year 1990-1991). Highlights of a state survey of educational programs to assist limited-English-proficient (LEP) students in Idaho's elementary and secondary schools are reported. An introductory section describes the legislative background and history of the survey and the methods used to gather data on programs and students. These methods include questionnaires, site visits, and school district records. The first part of the report summarizes student and program data, including LEP enrollments as a proportion of overall enrollments, student distribution by home language, migrant student population, academic achievement levels, number of public school students receiving instructional services designed for LEP students, the instructional models and services used to help LEP students develop English language skills, and staffing for this population. The report's second part describes state activities providing technical assistance to the schools, including preservice and inservice teacher education… [PDF]

(1988). Passage: A Journal of Refugee Education. 1988. Passage: A Journal of Refugee Education, v4 n1-2 Spr-Sum. This combined theme issue contains articles on the following topics: science and the communicative classroom; educational and recreational facilities in the Phanat Nikhom, Thailand refugee camps; learning styles; use of visual aids for language teaching; whole language methods for second-language writing instruction; bilingual cultural orientation; training assistant teachers as refugee culture brokers; teachers training teachers; young adult refugees; motivation; refugee mental health; a factory simulation; teacher exchange programs in Bataan, Philippines; development of a textbook for instruction in English as a Second Language (ESL); viewing cultural orientation as learning a system of relationships; teaching vocabulary to upper-level students; using students' skills to generate language; meeting the needs of upper-level ESL students; a work experience program; a culturally-oriented language lab curriculum; video as a training tool; and follow-up discussions in cultural… [PDF]

(1989). Selected Materials for Elementary and Secondary Less-Commonly Taught Languages: Language Arts and Content Areas. Arabic, Cambodian, Greek, Haitian Creole, Hebrew, Hmong, Indochinese, Japanese, Khmer, Korean, Lao, Latin, Pilipino, Russian, Urkrainian, Vietnamese. CLEAR Annotated Bibliography Series. This 65-item annotated bibliography is composed of materials for teaching language arts and the content area materials in the less commonly taught languages (including Arabic, Cambodian, Greek, Haitian Creole, Hebrew, Hmong, Indochinese, Japanese, Khmer, Korean, Lao, Latin, Pilipino, Russian, Urkrainian, Vietnamese) at the elementary or secondary levels. For each of the entries, the following information is indicated: target language, educational level, material type, content area, title, date of publication, author/developer, publisher and availability information, and an abstract/description of the material. The bibliography includes curriculum guides, program descriptions (for bilingual programs and immersion programs), vocabulary development activities, citizenship documents, computer assisted instructional materials, culture specific materials, teaching guides, courseware, and phrasebooks. (DJD)…

DeAvila, Edward A.; Duncan, Sharon E. (1977). LAS Language Arts Supplement, English. Revised Edition. This collection of over 100 games and activities is intended to increase oral proficiency among Spanish-speaking children without requiring reading skills. The collection grew out of the desire to provide remedies for specific linguistic weaknesses in English as identified by the Language Assessment Scales (LAS). Because tongue twisters, riddles and rhymes, and childhood games play a large part in the acquisition of the first language, these are emphasized. The Language Arts Supplement (LAS-LAS) is a language enrichment experience in two dimensions. First, it is not meant to instruct, in the sense of being didactic; there are no word or sentence pattern drills, per se. Wherever possible, the learning is meant to take place within the context of games and whimsey. Second, because of the large number of activities which come from the folklore of each language, the LAS-LAS is a linguistic cultural exchange. The activities can be done with a minimum of teacher guidance; the…

DeAvila, Edward A.; Duncan, Sharon E. (1977). LAS Language Arts Supplement, Spanish. Revised Edition. Like its English counterpart, this is a collection of over 100 games and activities whose intent is to increase oral proficiency without requiring reading skills. The collection grew out of the desire to provide remedies for specific linguistic weaknesses in Spanish as identified by the Language Assessment Scales. Because tongue twisters, riddles, rhymes, and childhood games play a large part in the acquisition of the first language, these are emphasized. The Language Arts Supplement (LAS-LAS) is a language enrichment experience in two dimensions. First, it is not meant to instruct, in the sense of being didactic; there are no word or sentence pattern drills, per se. Wherever possible, the learning is meant to take place within the context of games and whimsey. Second, because of the large number of activities which come from the folklore of each language, the LAS-LAS is a linguistic cultural exchange. The activities can be done with a minimum of teacher guidance; the…

Coleman, Deborah D., Ed. (1979). Experiential Education in the Workplace. An Annotated Bibliography. Bibliography Series No. 47. This annotated bibliography presents selected references from various bodies of literature which pertain to experiential education in the workplace. (CSS)… [PDF]

McKeon, Denise; Samway, Katherine Davies (1999). Myths and Realities: Best Practices for Language Minority Students. This book provides research information about programs and practices that have proven to be effective for helping language minority students achieve academically. Basic background information about language acquisition, legal requirements for educating linguistically diverse students, and placement, program, and assessment information is also provided to help guide educators through the new and emerging climate of high stakes accountability. The principle aim of this book is also to debunk some of the myths surrounding the education of language minority students. A total of 45 myths in nine categories (demographics, enrollment, native language instruction, second language acquisition, placement, assessment, programming, staffing and staff development, and parents and the community) are methodically set forth, explored, and then refuted with empirical research. The importance of debunking these myths is asserted because such beliefs color the policy, programmatic, and instructional…

Bjerstedt, Ake, Ed.; Gustafsson, Evy, Ed. (1978). Towards Intergroup and Global Solidarity Via Teacher Training. Teacher Training as a Vehicle in Fostering Intercultural Awareness, Intergroup Understanding, and Global Solidarity: A Collection of Abstracts. No. 60. This annotated bibliography identifies over 100 resources available through the ERIC system. It focuses on the improvement of inservice or preservice teacher training for the purpose of fostering intercultural awareness, intergroup understanding, and global solidarity. Topics listed include international understanding via student teaching abroad, developing creative materials for teaching the culturally different child, evaluation of curriculum materials, and reviews of literature related to segregation and racism. Some descriptions of training institutes for teachers and school administrators are also included. Entries for the bibliography were located in the ERIC system from 1966-1976. Information is included on author, title, institutional source, publication date, number of pages, ERIC accession number, and availability from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service. A 200-word abstract and ERIC descriptors are included. (KC)…

(2004). Integrating Immigrant Children into Schools in Europe: Romania–National Description 2003/04. Eurydice The national contributions contained in this paper and on the Eurydice website formed the basis for the comparative study on the integration at school of immigrant children in Europe. Each contribution has exactly the same structure with four main sections entitled as follows: (1) National definitions and demographic context of immigration; (2) Measures offering school-based support to immigrant children and their families; (3) Intercultural approaches in education; and (4) Evaluation, pilot projects, debates and forthcoming reforms. This paper focuses on the integration at school of immigrant children in Romania. (Contains 2 footnotes.) [CD-ROM is not included with this publication. For the main report, "Integrating Immigrant Children into Schools in Europe: Measures to Foster Communication with Immigrant Families and Heritage Language Teaching for Immigrant Children," see ED539128.]… [Direct]

(2004). Integrating Immigrant Children into Schools in Europe: Portugal–National Description 2003/04. Eurydice The national contributions contained in this paper and on the Eurydice website formed the basis for the comparative study on the integration at school of immigrant children in Europe. Each contribution has exactly the same structure with four main sections entitled as follows: (1) National definitions and demographic context of immigration; (2) Measures offering school-based support to immigrant children and their families; (3) Intercultural approaches in education; and (4) Evaluation, pilot projects, debates and forthcoming reforms. This paper focuses on the integration at school of immigrant children in Portugal. Cultural groups/nationalities are appended. A bibliography is included. (Contains 6 footnotes.) [CD-ROM is not included with this publication. For the main report, "Integrating Immigrant Children into Schools in Europe: Measures to Foster Communication with Immigrant Families and Heritage Language Teaching for Immigrant Children," see ED539128.]… [Direct]

(2004). Integrating Immigrant Children into Schools in Europe: Latvia–National Description 2003/04. Eurydice The national contributions contained in this paper and on the Eurydice website formed the basis for the comparative study on the integration at school of immigrant children in Europe. Each contribution has exactly the same structure with four main sections entitled as follows: (1) National definitions and demographic context of immigration; (2) Measures offering school-based support to immigrant children and their families; (3) Intercultural approaches in education; and (4) Evaluation, pilot projects, debates and forthcoming reforms. This paper focuses on the integration at school of immigrant children in Latvia. A bibliography is included. (Contains 5 tables and 1 footnote.) [CD-ROM is not included with this publication. For the main report, "Integrating Immigrant Children into Schools in Europe: Measures to Foster Communication with Immigrant Families and Heritage Language Teaching for Immigrant Children," see ED539128.]… [Direct]

Lo Bianco, Joseph, Ed.; Wickert, Rosie, Ed. (2001). Australian Policy Activism in Language and Literacy. This book presents the dynamics of language and literacy policy activism in Australia. The introduction is "Activists and Policy" (LoBianco, Wickert). Part 1, "From Policy to Anti-Policy" (LoBianco), sets a frame and overarching context of the pattern of Australian language and literacy policy. Part 2 contains accounts of how policy activists learned to become more effective in influence and text production, including "Australia's Language" (Brock); "Politics, Activism, and Processes of Policy Production" (Wickert); and "Although It Wasn't Broken, It Certainly Was Fixed" (Moore). Part 3 explores different approaches to understanding how policy problems and solutions are constituted in particular kinds of ways with an intention to generate desired solutions. Included are"Advocating the Sustainability of Linguistic Diversity" (Singh); "Cost of Literacy for Some" (Taylor); and "(E)merging Discourses at Work"… [PDF]

Carpenter, Mark, Ed. (2000). Proceedings for the Texas Foreign Language [Education] Conference (Austin, Texas, March 31-April 1, 2000). Texas Papers in Foreign Language Education, v5 n1 spec iss Fall. Articles in this issue include the following: "Chat in EFL: Communicative Humanistic Acculturation Techniques" (Daniel Evans); "Task Interpretation and Task Effectiveness: A Vygotskian Analysis of a French L2 Classroom Task" (Lindsy Myers); "Envisioning a Standards-Based Methods Course: Preparing Second Language Educators for the 21st Century" (Kathleen Bueno); "Teachers' Beliefs about Language Learning and Teaching: A Cross-Cultural Comparison" (Nae-Dong Yang); "Foreign Language Methods Students' Beliefs about Language Learning and Teaching" (Stasie Harrington and Tammy Hertel); "From a Foreign Language Perspective: A Snapshot View of a Dual Language Program in Two Inner-City High-Poverty Elementary Schools" (Sherry Coy and Lucinda Litherland); "An Infusion Curriculum for the Heritage Speaker" (Barbara Gonzalez-Pino); "Multiple Metaphors: Teaching Second-Language Tense and Aspect to English Speakers"… [PDF]

Felix-Holt, Maria; Gonzalez, Virginia (1995). Influence of Evaluators' Prior Academic Knowledge and Beliefs on the Diagnosis of Cognitive and Language Development in Bilingual Hispanic Kindergartners. The objective of this case study is to explore the influence of evaluators' beliefs on the diagnosis of language-minority children's cognitive-linguistic development. More specifically, the following five areas are explored: (1) evaluator's cultural and linguistic backgrounds; (2) their beliefs about language-minority children's cognitive-linguistic development and measurements; (3) diagnostic and placement behaviors; (4) ability to personalize questions by making explicit connections between beliefs held and personal backgrounds; and (5) level of awareness of the effect of personality factors on the diagnosis and placement of language-minority children. The major argument underlying findings in this study is that reaching a diagnostic conclusion requires the evaluator to go through an inferencing and interpretation process, especially when currently contradictory evidence is portrayed by qualitative and standardized measurements. Conclusions emphasize theoretical and applied… [PDF]