Albornoz Mu√±oz, Natalia; Palma Flores, Evelyn (2022). Between Identification and Empathy to Elaborate the Difficult Past: An Experience of a Classroom Debate with Chilean Children. Journal of Peace Education, v19 n1 p25-46. This article presents an analysis of historical thinking operations deployed in a student debate on Chile's difficult past. A discussion was held in a public school during the second semester of 2019 on sensitive issues in recent history. Twenty-seven students between eleven and fourteen years of age participated in the activity, corresponding to the sixth grade of primary education. The results indicate that the students are active thinkers of past events through operations such as identification and historical empathy. According to the debate, these operations unfold through the categories of family affiliation and social class from which they identify and empathise with the actors of the past and the temporal relationship with their own experience. The article concludes with some insights about peace education in post-conflict societies where the past conflict remains in the present…. [Direct]

Aldana-Guti√©rrez, Yeraldine (2021). Possible Impossibilities of Peace Construction in ELT: Profiling the Field. HOW, v28 n1 p141-162 Jan-Jun. When referring to peace, peacebuilding, and peace education, among others, some similarities and differences among them appear. Although some consider ELT as a peripheral field regarding peace construction, diverse enunciation modalities profile this interest. Inquiring into "what, where, when and who," I analyzed 55 articles and 36 presentation abstracts for this qualitative study to unveil what is understood as peace construction in ELT. This revision presents six tendencies. Gaps and opportunities of research action for teachers are synthesized. Time/space coordinates of enunciation modalities in peace construction are displayed. I describe who the teachers behind some studies might be, regarding their locus of enunciation. Conclusion remarks around the diverse nature of peace construction are discussed, as representing those links between imagined separated fields…. [PDF]

Bajaj, Monisha (2015). "Pedagogies of Resistance" and Critical Peace Education Praxis. Journal of Peace Education, v12 n2 p154-166. This paper explores "pedagogies of resistance"–or critical and democratic educational models utilized by social movements–and how global examples of engaged educational praxis may inform peace education. The central inquiry of this article is "How can educational projects that resist larger social, political and economic inequalities offer understandings about how we learn, teach, and act for peace in diverse settings?" Drawing upon literature from various fields, ideas and insights are offered about how the field of peace education can better respond to multiple and diverse realities, particularly those facing marginalized communities. The article provides an overview of key tenets of peace education and ideas central to "critical peace education;" offers a framing of "pedagogies of resistance;" and, lastly, details what directions emerge by putting these two educational forms in conversation…. [Direct]

Cohan, Audrey; Howlett, Charles F. (2017). Global Conflicts Shattered World Peace: John Dewey's Influence on Peace Educators and Practitioners. Education and Culture, v33 n1 Article 5. The need to build an awareness of peace and of peace education is often a message that is difficult to share with the larger society. John Dewey, an acclaimed American philosopher and intellectual, used his public platform to espouse his ideas on democracy and peace as a resolution to global discord during the years preceding and during World Wars I and II. Although Dewey did shift his perspective as global conflicts shattered his hope for world peace, he persevered in his missive of democracy and tolerance, especially through his writing and lectures. Dewey strongly believed that democratic societies are best suited to preserve peace and societal harmony. His reasoning was premised on his own understanding of democracy as a way of life, not as a political process. This paper examines Dewey's ideas on peace education and his influence during the interwar years as well as during World War II. It also discusses how his ideas have been applied to contemporary approaches to peace… [Direct]

Buck, Brandon (2016). Culturally Responsive Peace Education: A Case Study at One Urban Latino K-8 Catholic School. Journal of Catholic Education, v20 n1 Article 2 Oct. This paper presents a case study of a yearlong research-based peace education program at one urban K-8 private Catholic school situated in a community plagued by structural violence in an enclave of a large Midwestern city. To frame the analysis, the author employs concepts central to culturally responsive pedagogy (including cultural competence, funds of knowledge, reshaping the curriculum, and activism) in order to highlight some of the unique challenges involved in implementing a peace education program in a diverse, urban environment…. [PDF]

Sita Radhe Dasa (2023). Dynamic Empowerment in Critical Peace Education: A Three Angle Approach. ProQuest LLC, Ph.D. Dissertation, The University of Toledo. Critical peace education sets forth a process-oriented pedagogy with key tenets that include inquiry, reflection, dialogue, critical value-assessment, and empowerment. Empowerment as tenet is unique because, when viewed comprehensively, it is recognized as an integral element required for the actualization of all other tenets within CPE. Although empowerment may take on many forms within the CPE framework, this work seeks to establish that its foundational component rests upon three distinct elements which include: the ability to establish and maintain authentic inner unification with peace (through the development of an integrated state of nonviolence), the ability to offer valid normative justifications for one's claims, and an ongoing commitment and willingness to reconstruct the conception of peace in pursuit of justice and fairness in a diverse biosphere. The prevalence of violence (specifically structural violence experienced as dehumanization, marginalization, and oppression)… [Direct]

Brantmeier, Edward J.; Webb, Destin (2020). Examining Learning in the Course, "Inclusive Leadership for Sustainable Peace". Journal of Peace Education, v17 n1 p1-25. The undergraduate, introductory course, 'Inclusive Leadership for Sustainable Peace' aimed to cultivate sustainable peace leaders by inviting students to clarify their own core values and by examining: macro UNESCO Sustainable Development Goals and the Earth Charter; values and approaches of global sustainable peace leaders in their historic and community contexts; and local leadership in organizations committed to healthy ecosystems, society equity, and viable economies. Offered in the spring of 2017 and 2018 at a predominately white, Euro-American, and large master's comprehensive university in the United States, the core pedagogy of the course involved a critical pedagogy of place, critical peace education for sustainability, a systems approach to leadership, and contemplative inquiry, aimed at promoting deep learning. The primary research question for this study is 'What do students learn about themselves, others, and their ability to change the world from engaging in this… [Direct]

Furnari, Ellen; Tamashiro, Roy (2015). Museums for Peace: Agents and Instruments of Peace Education. Journal of Peace Education, v12 n3 p223-235. Although museums for peace claim peace education to be a primary mission, their definitions of "peace" and their aims and practices for peace education vary widely. In this article, we draw from the field of critical museology and the knowledge construction perspective to understand the role of museums for peace in the service of peace education. From the constructivist viewpoint, the museums' narratives are not objective or historical truths. Rather they are the museum designers' "constructed" interpretations of the events, people, and places that are memorialized. The museums' exhibits, narratives, and programs reflect a wide range of definitions of peace including some which conflict and contradict each other. The variations in defining peace contribute to differences in how the museums view and exercise their role in educating for peace. From this analysis, we observe how contemporary museums for peace can play a significant role in peace education by raising… [Direct]

Gomez-Suarez, Andrei (2017). Peace Process Pedagogy: Lessons from the No-Vote Victory in the Colombian Peace Referendum. Comparative Education, v53 n3 p462-482. Is there a need for a new field within Peace Education that looks at the complex dynamics of transitional societies in the post-truth era? What formal and informal pedagogical strategies might be best suited for transforming "emotional anti-peace mindsets?" Drawing on practical examples from the complex political contingencies in Colombia, this article positions the concept of Peace Process Pedagogy within discussions in Critical Peace Education and Critical Contemplative Pedagogy. It encourages critical pedagogues to develop strategies to dismantle misinformation about peace policies, to engage in open conversations about emotions, and to work with embodied action…. [Direct]

Kumar, Kamiya (2022). Human and Integral Education: Educational Paradigms from the Indian Context Expanding Meanings of Peace and Conflict. Journal of Peace Education, v19 n3 p351-372. Post-independence, the Indian context has witnessed conflicts between religious groups, structural/cultural violence, and discrimination based on socio-cultural factors such as socio-economic status, religion, gender, sexual identity, caste, language among others. Even though the perpetuation of these power imbalances at the macro-national level are being manifested in schools through educational interventions, there are ongoing efforts, as part of peace curriculums, to engage with/transform this culture of conflict towards cultivating a culture of peace. This study seeks to understand how school curriculums engage with ideas of peace and conflict. A document analysis of micro-peace curriculum (two school sites) that incorporated both a deductive and inductive approach of analysis was undertaken. Guided by a critical peace education framework implicating that curriculum engaging with conflict, positive relationships, and transformation can contribute towards cultivating peace guided… [Direct]

Corrie, Elizabeth W. (2020). Deliberative Democratic Theological Education: A Proposal for Youth Ministry That Builds Peace. Religious Education, v115 n3 p233-244. Drawing on research in deliberative pedagogy, this paper will develop in depth one piece of a larger project that envisions peace education as an essential component of youth ministry. The paper proposes a sacred pedagogy that engages theological concepts through deliberative, democratic discussion, teaching young people skills in engaging across difference as well as habits of deliberative theological thinking for a lifetime of spiritual growth. The specific example of engaging the problem of how we image Jesus will serve as an illustration of the potential for a series of curricular materials for use in congregational youth settings…. [Direct]

Maria Hantzopoulos; Monisha Bajaj (2024). Mapping Our Dreams and Rooting Our Futures: Possibility Trees as Essential Pedagogy and Praxis in Peace, Social Justice, and Human Rights Education. International Journal of Human Rights Education, v8 n1 Article 2. In this article, we explore a pedagogical and conceptual tool we have refined and developed for the fields of peace, social justice, and human rights education: "the possibility tree." Initially introduced in our 2021 book, we explore this tool in more depth in this article to show how such pedagogical and conceptual processes are key components of peace and human rights education praxis with greater implications for both research and teaching. Our aim is to provide an applied praxis-oriented framework for educators, practitioners, researchers, and theorists that are concerned with larger issues of peace, justice, and human rights. While we do not delve into the distinct theoretical concepts and genealogies (and their intersections) of peace and human rights education in this article, we use this opportunity to expand upon the importance of pedagogical and conceptual practices and their applicability, as these integral processes have ultimately remained underexplored in… [PDF]

Knowles, Ryan T.; Velez, Gabriel M. (2022). Trust, Civic Self-Efficacy, and Acceptance of Corruption among Colombian Adolescents: Shifting Attitudes between 2009-2016. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, v52 n8 p1205-1221. Civic self-efficacy and trust are interrelated dimensions of citizenship that are important in adolescence and linked to educational contexts. Furthermore, they have been separately connected to corruption. However, the three factors are seldom looked at together and investigations of them using international education datasets are rarely contextualised within national histories and politics. The current study uses the 2009 and 2016 ICCS and multi-group multilevel confirmatory factor analysis to investigate differences in and relationships between adolescent Colombians' trust, civic self-efficacy, and acceptance of corruption. During these years, the government was involved in a peace process that sparked political polarisation and embroiled in several corruption scandals. Analyses revealed lower institutional trust, but higher civic self-efficacy and acceptance of corruption in the 2016 cohort. The results indicate that declining trust and rising acceptance of corruption may not… [Direct]

John, Vaughn M. (2016). Using Conflict Mapping to Foster Peace-Related Learning and Change in Schools. Education as Change, v20 n2 p221-242. South African societies, including learners in primary and secondary schools, experience high levels of violent conflict. The lack of interventions in terms of peace education and peace building is cause for concern. Driven by an interest to build educators' capacity and agency to become agents of change in the face of growing conflict and violence, this article discusses a mapping project which gets educators to explore their schools using a participatory process and to plan appropriate interventions in response. It considers how Freirian-inspired critical reflection and dialogical learning can be used to stimulate peace education and peace building in schools…. [Direct]

Ubogu, Rowell (2016). Peace Education in Secondary Schools: A Strategic Tool for Peace Building and Peace Culture in Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice, v7 n14 p88-92. The paper discusses Peace Education as Strategic Tool for Peace Building and Peace Culture in Nigeria. This was prompted by the inherent incompatibility between the objectives of individuals, ethnic/social groups in Nigeria. The research question addresses Normative and Ethical issues regarding peace, the absence of violence/hostility and its education in secondary schools were discussed; two research questions and two hypotheses where addressed. Eighty Nine (89) subjects (Teachers) were selected from 124 (Public and Private) Secondary Schools in Delta State. The internal consistency of the questionnaire items were tested using the Cronbach alpha method with a coefficient of 0.87. A mean and t test statistics was used to analyze the research question and hypothesis. The study revealed that peace and cultural harmony goes hand in hand, in order for peace education to gain academic acceptance it has to be defined in terms of the predominant culture of the society and that anti-social… [PDF]

Dietrich, Wolfgang (2019). Conviviality, Ego, Team and Theme Behavior in Transrational Peace Education. Journal of Peace Education, v16 n3 p252-273. The Innsbruck School of Peace Studies is known for its innovative academic teaching methods under the title Transrational Peace Philosophy. This essay introduces the epistemological fundament of this approach to peace education. It presents the didactic principles for its "Strategic Capacity and Relationship Building," combined with Strategic Leadership Training. They are based on the conviviality of students and a curriculum that follows the stages of groups' task behavior and individual learning by 'peeling the onion' of the Ego. It describes how the didactics are designed for the international, intercultural, interreligious and interdisciplinary groups of students. It demonstrates the five stages of Ego, Team and Theme Behavior during a semester and how the curriculum places courses for best learning results. It discusses the main presumptions on convivial learning processes for academics. The focus is on students who want to work later in a broader field of conflict… [Direct]

Nwaubani, Okechukwu O,; Okafor, Ogochukwu Stella (2015). Assessing the Moral Relevance of Peace Education Contents in the Basic Education Social Studies Curricula for Effective Citizenship Participation in Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice, v6 n13 p79-87. Social studies is a core subject at the basic education level in Nigeria which has the potentials of inculcating functional knowledge and desirable morals into pupils for effective citizenship participation through peaceful coexistence. However, despite this positive trend, the moral significance of peace education contents of the subject seem not to have been adequately explored. This lacuna justified the need for this study which sought to find out the moral relevance of peace education contents in basic education social studies in Nigerian schools. The study adopted a descriptive survey design with content analysis bias. A sample of 200 social studies teachers undergoing in-service sandwich training were selected through stratified random sampling technique from states across the six geo-political zones of Nigeria. Three research questions guided the study. Similarly, two major instruments namely 10-item questionnaire titled "Teachers' Awareness of the Moral Relevance of… [PDF]

Nezha El Massoudi (2024). Paving the Path to Peace through Citizenship Education in a New Social Contract. Prospects, v54 n2 p491-498. Trust in the potential of education as a common good is the cornerstone of the bond between citizens and their institutions. Changing current patterns entails lifting barriers to a culture of peace and uprooting all forms of violence. Education needs to be resilient enough through its citizen education to provide a framework for thriving societies. Governing education as a common good requires questioning educational models and curricula, considering how notions of peace are integrated into those models, which can serve as a basis for schooling as an integral part of society for the well-being and advancement of citizens. Therefore, we ask, how can citizenship education impact public institutions peace-wise? And conversely, how can citizenship education foster proximity peace and disseminate ethics for citizens, the planet, and peace building. How can citizenship education be beneficial to society as a whole? This article attempts to address these questions by exploring the benefits… [Direct]

(2019). An Interview with Ana Mar√≠a Garc√≠a Blanco. Montessori Life: A Publication of the American Montessori Society, v31 n3 p48-51 Fall. Ana Mar√≠a Garc√≠a Glanco is the AMS 2020 living legacy. As a fearless community organizer, peace education activist, and educational pioneer, Ana Mar√≠a has changed thousands of lives and transformed the future of public Montessori education in Puerto Rico. In this interview, Ana Maria discusses how she was introduced to Montessori, her own educational background, her involvement with Escuela Juan Ponce de Le√≥n public elementary school, and her response to the need for more Montessori trained teachers in Puerto Rico…. [Direct]

Oueijan, Harvey N. (2018). Educating for Peace in Higher Education. Universal Journal of Educational Research, v6 n9 p1916-1920. Peace education has become an important issue nowadays and a major concern for researchers and educators all over the world. Peace education has been introduced into many educational institutions either as separate programs or integrated within the various subject materials. Hoping to trigger some positive changes, post-war countries started adopting such programs. Research shows that the sooner children get introduced to the knowledge of peace and practice the skills related to it, the greater the chance they will become positive change agents in the future. While peace programs are being introduced into schools worldwide, it seems that attempts to do so in higher education are still minimal. Consequently, I believe that school teachers have become more qualified to educate their students for peace than university professors although one cannot deny that many universities are now offering courses or even degrees in peace studies such as conflict resolution and transformation…. [PDF]

Ahmed, Zahid Shahab (2017). Peace Education in Pakistan. Special Report 400. United States Institute of Peace With an eye to the theory that radicalization is a function of social and political marginalization more than of economic poverty, this report examines a cross-section of peace education initiatives in Pakistan. It relies on data collected through interviews with program teachers and students when possible. Funded by the United States Institute of Peace, it is part of a larger Center for South and Central Asia study on the role of education in preventing violent conflict…. [PDF]

Paulgaard, Gry; Soleim, Marianne Neerland (2023). The Arctic Migration Route: Local Consequences of Global Crises. Journal of Peace Education, v20 n2 p196-216. This paper addresses peace education focusing on how place-based experiences and collective memories stimulate local mobilisation for refugees fleeing from war. The Arctic Migration Route, located above 69th degree north, became an alternative to dangerous boat trips on the Mediterranean Sea, for people seeking safety and protection in the fall of 2015. During a few months, over 5,500 people from 35 nations, mostly from Syria, Afghanistan, Iraq and Iran came to a municipality in north Norway with 10,000 inhabitants. The paper demonstrates how global conflicts far away, have important local consequences across borders and huge distances. Interviews with local authorities, teachers, voluntary workers constitute the main empirical material. By combining theories of place-based experiences and collective memories with phenomenology of practice, geographical location, collective and cultural memories across generations, are analysed as important driving forces for the local mobilization… [Direct]

Zakharia, Zeena (2017). Getting to "No": Locating Critical Peace Education within Resistance and Anti-Oppression Pedagogy at a Shi'a Islamic School in Lebanon. Research in Comparative and International Education, v12 n1 p46-63 Mar. This paper critically engages observations from a school that was aligned with a resistance movement in Lebanon during a post-war period of sustained political violence (2006-2007). Focusing on the pedagogical practices at one community-centered and community-led Shi'a Islamic urban school, the paper draws on extensive ethnographic data to illustrate how teachers and students, together, negotiated resistance and peace learning through a critical and participatory process at a school whose curricular content, structure, and pedagogy explicitly addressed both direct and structural forms of violence. Drawing on rich, illustrative classroom data, I examine the production and enactment of peace knowledge as resistance to the status quo. This knowledge production does not exclude the performance of militarism and heroic resistance as forms of praxis, creating dissonance for understanding peace education as a field of scholarship and practice. This dissonance, I posit, is critical in… [Direct]

Moradi Sheykhjan, Tohid (2014). Global Peace Education in 21st Century. Online Submission, Paper presented at the National Conference on Trends and Innovations in Gandhian Thought (Kerala, India, Dec 12-13, 2014). This article explores theoretical and practical issues related to education for global peace during the 21st century. The development of global peace education is discussed in this study. Although India has made many contributions to the theory and practice of peace work (the non-violent movement led by Mahatma Gandhi, who conceived peace as non-violence restored with justice and equity. By non-violent action Gandhi meant peaceful, constructive mass action. It is true that Gandhi did not write on global peace education in any very specific way, but his whole philosophy and life have been, of course, important in peace studies and peace education not only for India but for other nations of the world as well. His peace education must become part of all global education system…. [PDF]

Akbana, Yunus Emre; Yavuz, Aysun (2022). Global Issues in a Series of EFL Textbooks and Implications for End-Users to Promote Peace Education through Teaching English. Journal of Peace Education, v19 n3 p373-396. English has long been accepted as "lingua franca" (ELF) to share values, beliefs and opinions. ELF can be interrelated with the paradigms of Global Englishes Language Teaching (GELT), English as an International Language (EIL) and English as Medium of Instruction (EMI). Textbooks should present content covering global issues (GIs), leading to a better understanding of the spread of English and its connection with globalization where peace education (PE) should be built on. English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) teachers usually feel under pressure to follow textbooks in English prep-programs in Turkey. Therefore, the extent that EFL textbooks offer GIs is crucial for developing learners' understanding of PE beyond national boundaries. Although relevant literature has well documented the place of GIs in language teaching and paucity of research on PE in language education, EFL textbooks have remained under-researched. For this reason, a comprehensive checklist of GIs was used… [Direct]

Cook, Sharon Anne (2014). Reflections of a Peace Educator: The Power and Challenges of Peace Education with Pre-Service Teachers. Curriculum Inquiry, v44 n4 p489-507 Sep. This retrospective essay examines one long-standing peace and global education initiative for pre-service teacher candidates. The article probes the meanings of peace education and of global education embedded in the program, as well as the program's apparent consequences: What understandings of peace education did the pre-service candidates in this program demonstrate, through their own words and the teaching plans they produced? What skills did the pre-service candidates seem to acquire in curriculum design? My reflections are based on my own experience as a faculty member and coordinator of the program, as well as retrospective understandings derived from ongoing examination of questionnaires, focus group discussions, interviews, and especially, almost 200 curriculum products (lesson and unit plans) created by pre-service candidates in a special "global cohort" and in the general pre-service population at the same university. The article provides a literature review… [Direct]

McCorkle, William (2020). Applying a Critical and Peace Education Lens to the American Revolution in the Social Studies Classroom. Social Studies, v111 n3 p143-154. The American Revolution is central to the identity of citizens of the United States. It is, therefore, rarely critiqued in the U.S. social studies classroom. This article examines how teachers can discuss the American Revolution using both a critical historical approach and the ideas of peace education, particularly the strand that focuses on the problematization of war. Specific examples are given for how teachers can critique some of the national myths surrounding the American Revolution. Furthermore, the rationale for this critique of the American Revolution is presented, particularly as it relates to the problematic history of minorities in the aftermath of the Revolution and the relationship between students' views of the American Revolution and the ties to modern-day violence and military engagements. The goal for this more nuanced understanding of the American Revolution is not only to make students more critical thinkers in regard to their history but hopefully to also help… [Direct]

Shuayb, Maha (2015). Human Rights and Peace Education in the Lebanese Civics Textbooks. Research in Comparative and International Education, v10 n1 p135-150 Mar. In 1997 the Lebanese government published its newly developed curriculum and textbooks following a long and fierce civil war, which started in 1975. The new curriculum emphasized nation building, reconciliation and citizenship. This study aims to examine how the civics textbooks in Lebanon addressed human rights and peace education, both of which are crucial in any attempt to build cohesion in a post-conflict society. Findings revealed that human rights and peace education were endorsed in the aims and objectives of the 1997 curriculum. The textbooks directly addressed some of these themes, particularly human rights and to a lesser degree peace education. The pedagogy followed in the textbooks to teach the two concepts was primarily descriptive. Despite the fact that the constructivist approach has been adopted as part of the curriculum objectives, implementation of this approach is almost absent from the civics textbooks. The study compares these results to citizenship education in… [Direct]

Silberberg, Roi (2019). The Philosophical Challenges of Critical Peace Education in the Palestinian-Israeli Context. Ethics and Education, v14 n2 p198-212. This article presents and analyzes two examples of peace education practices in the Israeli-Palestinian context. "Zochrot" is an organization dedicated to raising public awareness of the Palestinian Nakba, especially among Jews in Israel. "The School for Peace" is a Jewish-Arab organization that conducts encounter activities with the goal of encouraging participants to become active in relation to the Palestinian-Israeli conflict. Both practices are grounded in critical pedagogy and postcolonial literature, and their aim is to change existing power structures. Current political realities, however, which include oppression, occupation, and injustice, exacerbate the challenge of this goal. We identify three challenges that demand attention if these practices are to realize their transformative potential: essentialism, responsibility of the victim, and singular utopia. Finally, we highlight the importance of hybrid identity as an educational approach that is a… [Direct]

Igbineweka, P. O.; Odigwe, F. N.; Uko, E. S. (2015). Promoting Peace Education for Behaviourial Changes in Public Secondary Schools in Calabar Municipality Council Area, Cross River State, Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice, v6 n23 p144-149. This study aimed at investigating the promotion of peace education for behavioural changes in public secondary schools in Calabar Municipal Council Area of Cross River State. A descriptive survey design was adopted for the study. A set of questionnaire items were validated and used for the collection of data involving 310 respondents, selected from a total population of 773 teachers and 10 principals representing 39.5% of the total population of 783. The questionnaire was titled: Promoting Peace Education For Behavioural Changes In Secondary Schools Questionnaire (PPEFBCISSQ). The reliability of the instrument was determined by using the split-half method which involved 31 teachers outside the study sample. Pearson product moment correlation coefficient was used to analyze the data. The reliability estimate was between r = 0.60 and r = 0.70. The result of the analysis showed a positive significant relationship between promotion of peace education and behavioural changes in curbing… [PDF]